LLC vs S Corp vs C Corp Which One Will Save You

💼 LLC vs S Corp vs C Corp: Which One Will Save You the Most in Taxes in 2025?

LLC vs S Corp vs C Corp: Which One Will Save You the Most in Taxes?  Starting or restructuring a business in 2025? Here’s a truth bomb: 💣 Choosing the right business entity isn’t just a formality—it could be the single most important financial decision you make all year. Whether you’re launching a startup, transitioning from freelance to full-time entrepreneur, or scaling a successful brand, your business structure directly affects your tax bill, liability exposure, and even how you raise capital.

💼 The Stakes Are High—And So Are the Savings

Let’s face it—nobody likes giving Uncle Sam more than they absolutely have to. But depending on how you structure your business—LLC, S Corp, or C Corp—you could either:

✅ Keep more of your hard-earned profits
💥 Get hit with double taxation
🚫 Miss out on juicy deductions and tax credits

So ask yourself:

🔍 Want to avoid double taxation?
🧾 Looking to maximize deductions like healthcare, retirement, or R&D credits?
📈 Planning to scale with external investment while staying tax-efficient?

If you said yes to any of those (and let’s be real—you did 😅), then you’re in the right place. This isn’t just another boring tax article. It’s your entrepreneur’s roadmap to financial optimization. 🧭

🎯 Who This Guide Is For

  • Solopreneurs & freelancers looking to legitimize their hustle

  • Small business owners ready to grow without overpaying the IRS

  • Startup founders preparing to raise capital or scale operations

  • Investors or side hustlers curious about which entity protects their assets best

No matter where you are in your business journey, the entity you choose today will affect how much you owe, how you’re paid, and how you grow.

👉 Pro Tip: A wrong move now can cost you thousands later. But don’t worry—you’re not navigating this alone. This comprehensive comparison will break it all down: the pros, the cons, the fine print, and the actual dollar impact on your taxes. 💰

So grab your favorite brew ☕ or energy drink ⚡ and buckle in. This guide is packed with practical insights, real-world scenarios, and tax strategies you can apply right away.

Ready to find out which business structure will save you the most in taxes in 2025? Let’s dive in.👇

LLC vs S Corp vs C Corp Which One Will Save You the Most in Taxes
Discover the tax-saving potential of LLCs, S Corps, and C Corps to unlock the best option for minimizing your tax burden and maximizing your bottom line.

🧾 Understanding the Structures: LLC, S Corp, and C Corp Explained

When it comes to choosing the right structure for your business in 2025, it’s essential to understand the real-world impact each entity has on your taxes, liability, growth potential, and everyday operations. Below, we break down the Big 3: LLC, S Corp, and C Corp—in simple terms with no legal jargon overload.

📘 LLC (Limited Liability Company)

The LLC is a favorite among small business owners, freelancers, and solo entrepreneurs. Why? Because it offers the perfect blend of liability protection and tax simplicity—plus, it’s super flexible to manage.

Pass-through taxation: Your business doesn’t pay federal income taxes. Instead, profits (and losses) “pass through” to your personal return. No corporate taxes = one less headache.
Flexible ownership: You can have one member or multiple, and there are no restrictions on who can own an LLC.
Simple management: No need for shareholder meetings, corporate boards, or complex recordkeeping. Perfect for busy founders.

⚠️ But there’s a catch: LLCs are subject to self-employment tax, meaning you’ll be paying both the employer and employee portions of Social Security and Medicare—ouch. 🧾

💡 Pro Tip: You can elect to have your LLC taxed as an S Corporation to potentially reduce self-employment tax—especially as your business income grows.

👉 Learn more:

📗 S Corporation (S Corp)

Looking to save big on self-employment taxes while still keeping the benefits of pass-through taxation? Then an S Corp might be the strategic move your business needs in 2025. 💼💡

Pass-through taxation: Like an LLC, the S Corp allows profits and losses to flow through to your personal tax return. No corporate income tax = no double taxation!
Potential tax savings: Here’s where it gets juicy 🍊 — as an owner, you can pay yourself a “reasonable salary” (which is taxed normally), and then take the rest of the profits as distributions, which aren’t subject to self-employment tax. That means more money in your pocket 💸.
Liability protection: Your personal assets are still shielded from business debts or lawsuits.

⚠️ Ownership limitations: You can have no more than 100 shareholders, and they must all be U.S. citizens or residents. That could be a dealbreaker for startups aiming to attract global investors.
⚠️ More rules & paperwork: Unlike an LLC, an S Corp must maintain a board of directors, hold annual shareholder meetings, and keep detailed corporate minutes. More red tape, but also more structure.

👥 Best for: Small businesses and service-based entrepreneurs (think consultants, agencies, dentists, etc.) who want to optimize for tax savings and are fine with some added administrative work.

🔗 Learn more:

📕 C Corporation (C Corp)

Planning to build the next big thing in 2025 — maybe the next Tesla or Stripe? 🚀 Then a C Corporation might be the ideal legal structure for your business. It’s built for scalability, serious funding, and long-term growth.

⚖️ Double taxation: Let’s address the elephant in the room first. Yes, C Corps face double taxation — once on corporate profits, and again when dividends are paid to shareholders. But for many fast-growing companies, the tradeoff is well worth it.

Unlimited shareholders: Unlike S Corps, C Corps have no restrictions on shareholders, which makes them perfect for attracting investors, venture capital, or even going public someday. 🌍💰
Juicy deductions: C Corps can deduct the cost of employee health insurance, retirement contributions, stock options, fringe benefits, and more. These deductions can offset some of that tax burden.
Retained earnings: Want to keep profits in the company to reinvest in growth? C Corps can do that — and get taxed at a flat 21% corporate rate, which may be lower than your personal income tax bracket.
Strong business credibility: Many larger clients, government contracts, and investors see C Corps as more legitimate or “serious.”

🚀 Best for: Startups aiming to scale fast, raise outside capital, or go public in the future. If you’re dreaming big and plan to reinvest profits aggressively, this could be your launchpad.

🔗 Explore further:

💰 Comparing the Tax Implications of LLC vs S Corp vs C Corp (Real-World Scenarios You Can Relate To)

Choosing a business structure isn’t just paperwork — it’s one of the smartest (or costliest) financial moves you’ll make in 2025. The way your business is taxed can influence everything from how much you keep in profits 💸, to how attractive you are to investors, to how you grow and reinvest in the future.

So, which one gives you the most bang for your tax buck — LLC, S Corp, or C Corp?

Let’s dive deeper into each structure and walk through real-world income examples to give you clarity you can actually act on. 🔍

📊 At-a-Glance Tax Comparison Chart

Feature LLC S Corp C Corp
Taxation Type 🔄 Pass-through — income taxed at personal level 🔄 Pass-through with salary/distribution split 🏢 Double taxation — taxed at corp + shareholder level
Self-Employment Taxes ✅ Yes – Full 15.3% on all net earnings ⚖️ Only on “reasonable” salary, not on distributions ❌ Not applicable if income is taken as dividends
Flexibility 🔓 High – Great for solopreneurs, side hustlers 🧩 Medium – Restrictions on shareholders 🔐 Low – Formal, but more options for tax planning
Investor Friendly? 🚫 Limited – No stock shares 🚫 No – Max 100 shareholders, U.S. only ✅ Yes – Ideal for raising VC, issuing stock
Tax Rate 💵 Individual tax rate (10%–37%) 💵 Individual tax rate (same as LLC) 📉 Flat 21% + 15%–20% qualified dividend rate
Compliance Requirements 🗂️ Minimal – Annual report & EIN 📁 Higher – Board, bylaws, annual meetings 🧾 Highest – Formal board, officer structure, 1120 filing
Best For 👨‍💻 Freelancers, small biz owners 👥 Small U.S. firms wanting tax efficiency 🚀 High-growth startups, tech, companies with investors

📈 Real-World Example: Your Business Makes $200,000 in 2025

Let’s break it down and see how much money you keep after taxes — across all three entities.

🟩 LLC (Limited Liability Company)

Structure: You and your business are separate legally, but not for taxes. All profits flow through to your personal return.

📊 Numbers:

  • Net profit: $200,000

  • Self-employment tax: 15.3% on $200,000 = $30,600

  • Income tax (est. at 24%): $48,000

  • Total tax: $78,600

Pros:

  • Simple setup and compliance

  • Full control over profits

  • No need for a board or complex paperwork

Cons:

  • Full self-employment tax hits hard 💥

  • Fewer fringe benefits (no tax-free health insurance or retirement plans)

  • Not ideal if you’re looking to raise capital

📘 Learn more: IRS Guide to LLC Taxation

🟦 S Corporation (S Corp)

Structure: Hybrid model with pass-through taxation, but allows you to pay yourself a salary + take the rest as dividends to avoid self-employment taxes.

📊 Numbers:

  • Salary: $100,000

    • Pays regular payroll taxes (Social Security + Medicare): ~$15,300

  • Distributions: $100,000

    • Not subject to self-employment tax

  • Income tax (24% on total): ~$48,000

  • Total tax: $63,300

💡 Savings over LLC: ~$15,000

Pros:

  • Big savings on self-employment taxes 💰

  • Still treated as a small business for IRS simplicity

  • Great for 1–100 shareholders

Cons:

  • Limited to 100 shareholders — all must be U.S. citizens or residents 🇺🇸

  • Increased compliance: must file Form 1120S, pay yourself a “reasonable” salary, and keep formal records

  • Less flexible than an LLC

📗 More info: S Corp Benefits and Limitations – IRS

🟥 C Corporation (C Corp)

Structure: A completely separate tax-paying entity. Pays tax on profits, and you pay tax again on dividends you receive.

📊 Numbers:

  • Profit: $200,000

  • Corporate tax (21%): $42,000

  • Remaining: $158,000

  • Qualified dividend tax (15%): $23,700

  • Total tax: $65,700

Pros:

  • Flat 21% corporate rate can be lower than personal rates

  • Deduct fringe benefits like health insurance, life insurance, 401(k) 🧾

  • Can retain profits for reinvestment 💼

  • No limit on shareholders (foreign investors welcome) — perfect for raising venture capital

Cons:

  • Double taxation is real 😬

  • More IRS scrutiny and regulatory compliance

  • Less flexible for smaller or low-profit companies

📕 Deep dive:

🔍 Summary: Which Structure Saves You the Most in Taxes?

Income Level Best Structure Why
$0–$100,000 LLC or S Corp Simple taxes; S Corp saves SE tax at higher end
$100,000–$250,000 S Corp Great balance of tax savings + compliance
$250,000+ or VC-backed C Corp Best for reinvestment, scaling, employee benefits, and outside funding

🧮 Pro Tip: You can start as an LLC and elect to be taxed as an S Corp with IRS Form 2553. Many small businesses go this route to keep legal flexibility and cut their tax bills.

🧠 Bonus: Don’t Forget State Taxes!

Some states treat LLCs and S Corps differently. For example:

  • California charges an $800 minimum franchise tax on LLCs & Corps

  • New York requires publication fees for LLCs

  • Texas has no state income tax 😍

👉 Check your state tax rules before deciding!

✅ Conclusion: Don’t Let the IRS Take More Than They Should

Your entity structure can either set you up for financial freedom or sink you with unnecessary tax bills. By understanding the numbers, tax rules, and how each structure fits your growth goals, you’ll be better equipped to make a smart, forward-thinking decision.

Need help choosing or changing your structure? ✅ Here’s how to switch your business entity.

📬 Have more questions? Drop them in the comments or message us for personalized tax tips. Let’s grow smarter — not just harder — in 2025. 🚀

Read Also: Business Credit Cards With High Limits

🔧 Optimizing Your Tax Strategy in 2025: Keep More of What You Earn 💸

Choosing the right business structure is just the first step — now it’s time to optimize your tax strategy so you’re not leaving money on the table. Whether you’re a solopreneur, a growing team, or gearing up for investment rounds, these tax-smart moves can put thousands of dollars back into your business (or your pocket).

Let’s break it down into five powerful, actionable strategies that work in 2025 👇

1. 📅 Plan Distributions Strategically

If you’re running an S Corporation, how and when you pay yourself can seriously impact your tax bill.

🧠 What to do:

  • Pay yourself a reasonable salary (required by IRS rules), then take the rest as distributions, which aren’t subject to self-employment taxes.

  • Consider deferring income into the next year if you’re expecting to drop into a lower tax bracket.

  • Accelerate deductible expenses in a high-income year to reduce your taxable income.

📊 Example:
Let’s say your S Corp made $150,000. You pay yourself a $70,000 salary (taxed normally) and take $80,000 in distributions (which skip payroll taxes). That’s potentially over $12,000 saved in self-employment taxes alone!

👉 Learn more about S Corp salaries and distributions from the IRS

2. 🧾 Maximize Fringe Benefits (C Corp Power Move)

C Corporations unlock a treasure chest of fringe benefits that can be deducted from business income — tax-free to you and tax-deductible to your company. It’s one of the best-kept secrets for high earners and entrepreneurs scaling up.

💼 What you can deduct through your C Corp:

  • 🏥 Health Reimbursement Arrangements (HRAs) & group health insurance

  • 📚 Educational assistance programs (up to $5,250/year tax-free per employee)

  • 🏖 Paid vacation, life insurance, commuter benefits

  • 💳 401(k) matching & other retirement contributions

🎯 Use this strategy to reduce corporate profits and reinvest in your team or yourself.

📘 IRS Guide: Fringe Benefits and Deductible Employee Benefits

3. 🧠 Use Hybrid Strategies for the Best of Both Worlds

Who says you have to choose just one flavor of tax structure? 🤔 You can get creative.

🔄 Pro Strategy:
Start an LLC (simple and flexible) but elect to be taxed as an S Corporation using IRS Form 2553.

💡 This gives you:

  • The operational ease of an LLC (fewer formalities, flexible ownership)

  • The tax efficiency of an S Corp (reduced self-employment taxes)

📊 Example:
Your business makes $120,000 annually. As an LLC, you’d pay about $18,000+ in self-employment taxes.
But as an LLC taxed as an S Corp, you pay yourself a $60,000 salary and take the rest as distributions — potentially cutting your tax bill by several thousand dollars per year.

👉 Learn how to elect S Corp status: IRS Instructions for Form 2553

4. 📈 Reinvest Through a C Corporation

If you’re playing the long game — think tech startups, product companies, or any business that doesn’t need to pull profits right away — the C Corp strategy is your friend.

🔒 Instead of paying yourself out and triggering dividend taxes, reinvest profits back into the company. At a flat 21% corporate tax rate, it’s a powerful way to grow aggressively while minimizing immediate tax exposure.

🧠 Why this works:

  • You avoid double taxation until you distribute profits.

  • Great for building out infrastructure, hiring, or developing products.

📘 Deep dive: IRS C Corporation Tax Guide

5. 👨‍💼 Work With a Tax Advisor (Seriously, Don’t DIY This)

Yes, you can Google stuff. Yes, ChatGPT can break it down.
But when it comes to your specific numbers, hiring a certified tax pro is often the best ROI you’ll ever get.

💼 A good CPA can:

  • Model tax outcomes for each structure

  • Find industry-specific deductions

  • Spot risks that could lead to audits

  • Help you set up payroll, benefits, and retirement plans properly

💡 Rule of thumb: If your business is earning over $75,000 annually, a CPA can easily save you thousands in taxes.

👉 Find a certified tax advisor near you: AICPA CPA Locator

✅ TL;DR – Your 2025 Tax Optimization Checklist

  • S Corp? Take salary + distributions to minimize SE tax

  • C Corp? Deduct those benefits and reinvest at 21% rate

  • Hybrid LLC/S Corp? Get flexibility and tax efficiency

  • Delay income or front-load expenses when it makes sense

  • Don’t go it alone — tax pros are worth every penny

Want help making the best move for your business? Drop a comment or connect with a business advisor through the SBA — free guidance is just a click away.

🔄 Switching Structures: Is It Worth It in 2025? Let’s Break It Down 💼⚙️

So, you’ve picked a business structure — maybe an LLC because it was quick and easy to set up. But now you’re making more money 💰, thinking about investors, or trying to lower your tax bill… and you’re wondering:

“Should I switch my business structure?”

The short answer: Yes, sometimes it’s not just worth it — it’s essential. But it’s not a move to take lightly. Changing your entity type can lead to major tax consequences, administrative tasks, and legal hoops. Still, when done right, it could save you thousands in taxes or unlock new growth opportunities. 🚀

Here’s when it makes sense to make the switch — and what to look out for:

📍 LLC ➡️ S Corporation

When to consider it:
👉 Your net income exceeds ~$70,000/year, and you’re actively working in your business.

🧠 Why switch?

  • An LLC is great when you’re getting started. But once your income grows, self-employment taxes (15.3%) start to eat into your profits.

  • By electing S Corp status (using Form 2553), you can pay yourself a reasonable salary, then take the remaining profit as distributions, which are not subject to self-employment tax.

💡 Real savings: Many business owners save $8,000–$15,000/year just by making this change.

⚠️ Watch out: You’ll need to start running payroll, keep proper corporate records, and file an S Corp tax return (Form 1120-S). Not hard, but it’s more admin.

👉 IRS resource: S Corporation Election

📍 S Corporation ➡️ C Corporation

When to consider it:
👉 You’re planning to raise venture capital, issue shares, or retain and reinvest profits into the business.

🏦 Why switch?

  • Most investors, especially VCs and angel investors, prefer C Corps for equity structuring and legal protection.

  • C Corps also allow you to keep profits inside the business at a flat 21% corporate tax rate, rather than passing all income through to shareholders.

📘 Added perks: C Corps offer more fringe benefits, like tax-deductible health insurance and retirement plans.
Plus, if you meet certain conditions, you may qualify for QSBS (Qualified Small Business Stock) exclusion under Section 1202 — allowing you to exclude up to $10 million in capital gains after holding your stock for 5+ years. 🤯

⚠️ Watch out: You’ll be subject to double taxation if you distribute profits as dividends.

📍 C Corporation ➡️ S Corporation

When to consider it:
👉 You’re tired of paying dividend taxes and want a simpler, pass-through structure.

📉 Why switch?

  • If your company isn’t reinvesting profits and instead pays out to shareholders, those dividends get taxed twice: once at the corporate level and again on your personal return.

  • Switching to an S Corp means profits pass directly to the owners without corporate taxes.

⚠️ Big caution here:

  • There’s a 5-year waiting period before some tax benefits kick in after converting.

  • You may owe the dreaded Built-In Gains (BIG) Tax if you sell appreciated assets within 5 years of converting.

💡 Tip: Talk to a CPA before making this move. Timing matters, especially if your C Corp holds valuable assets or equity.

👉 Learn more: IRS S Corporation Termination and Conversion Rules

⚠️ What to Watch Out For

Making the switch can come with unexpected tax liabilities, especially if:

  • Your business owns highly appreciated assets

  • You’ve claimed NOLs (Net Operating Losses)

  • You don’t follow IRS election procedures carefully

  • You switch mid-tax year without coordination

Pro tip: Always consult a qualified tax professional or CPA before converting your business entity. A 1-hour session could save you tens of thousands in tax headaches (and money) later.

👉 Find a trusted expert: AICPA’s CPA Finder

🎯 TL;DR: When Should You Switch?

From To Best When…
LLC S Corp Net income > $70k; want to reduce SE tax
S Corp C Corp You’re raising investment or reinvesting profits
C Corp S Corp You want to stop paying dividend taxes

Ready to make a move? 🎬 Let us know what structure you’re considering, and we’ll walk you through the next steps. Or talk to a business mentor for free via the SBA for one-on-one guidance!

💬 Still have questions? Drop them in the comments below or share your experience with entity switching — we’re building a community of smart business owners here.

📌 Final Thoughts: What’s the Best Business Structure in 2025? 🤔

Let’s be real — there’s no magic one-size-fits-all answer here. Your ideal business structure depends on where you are now, where you’re heading, and how much you’re earning. But that doesn’t mean you have to guess.

Here’s a quick cheat sheet to help you zero in on the right fit in 2025:

LLC (Limited Liability Company)

🛠️ Best for: Freelancers, solopreneurs, small local businesses.

💡 Why? It’s flexible, affordable, and easy to run — perfect for testing the waters without drowning in paperwork.

🔗 Learn more: IRS LLC Guide

S Corporation

💰 Best for: Established small businesses making consistent profits over $70K/year.

💡 Why? You can cut down on self-employment taxes and pay yourself a salary + distributions. It’s the sweet spot for many service-based businesses, consultants, and agencies.

📎 More info: S Corp Election – IRS

C Corporation

🚀 Best for: Startups, tech founders, high-growth businesses, and companies that need to raise capital or reinvest profits.

💡 Why? You’ll benefit from flat 21% corporate tax, attractive deductions (like healthcare and retirement), and no limit on shareholders. It’s also the go-to for attracting venture capital.

📎 Explore further: C Corporation Overview – IRS

📉 TL;DR Quick Recap:

Structure Ideal For Key Benefit
LLC Beginners, side hustlers, small teams Flexibility + pass-through simplicity
S Corp Profitable businesses wanting tax savings Avoid self-employment taxes
C Corp Growth-stage companies raising funds Scalable with investor-friendly perks

👥 Engage With Us! Let’s Talk Business 📣

💬 What’s your current structure? Are you planning to switch in 2025?
👉 Tell us your situation in the comments — we’re here to help you strategize smarter.

📨 Or want a private consult? Reach out to us here and let’s talk through your business goals, tax concerns, or future plans.

🧠 And remember: Talking to a CPA or tax advisor before choosing (or changing) your entity structure could save you thousands 💸 and protect your business in the long run.

👉 Need help finding one? Use the AICPA CPA locator tool

🎁 Bonus: Free Entity Selection Checklist

Want a quick printable tool to compare LLC, S Corp, and C Corp side by side?
Download our free 2025 Business Structure Comparison Checklist (PDF) — great for founders, freelancers, and growing teams.

Thanks for reading! If you found this helpful, share it with another entrepreneur or business owner who needs clarity in 2025. Let’s grow smarter — together. 🌱

🙋‍♀️ FAQs

❓ What are the key tax differences between LLCs, S Corps, and C Corps?

LLCs and S Corps are pass-through entities (profits taxed on your personal return), while C Corps pay corporate tax AND personal tax on dividends (double taxation).

❓ Which structure is best for minimizing self-employment tax?

S Corps often win here—by splitting salary and distributions, you can lower your SE tax significantly.

❓ Can I change my business entity type later?

Yes, but it involves paperwork and sometimes IRS scrutiny. Always consult a tax professional.

❓ Is a C Corp a bad idea for small businesses?

Not necessarily. If you’re planning to scale fast or attract investors, a C Corp might be your best option.

LLC vs S Corp vs C Corp Which One Will Save You the Most in Taxes
Discover the tax-saving potential of LLCs, S Corps, and C Corps to unlock the best option for minimizing your tax burden and maximizing your bottom line.

📣 Share This With a Fellow Entrepreneur!

🧩 Understanding your tax structure isn’t just smart—it’s essential for survival in today’s business environment.

🔗 Loved this post? Share it:
👉 Share on LinkedIn
👉 Tweet This Guide
👉 Send to a Business Partner

🔥 Pro-Tip for High-Earning Entrepreneurs:
Explore setting up multiple entities to isolate liability, segment income, and diversify your tax strategies (e.g., LLC for consulting + C Corp for scalable products). Ask your CPA. 💼💡

Read Also: How To Maximise Tax Breaks

Related Posts

Small Business Grants

Top Business Grants And Government Funding Programs You Can Apply For Before Year End 2025

Top Business Grants And Government Funding Programs You Can Apply For Before Year End 2025 🔥 Introduction: This Might Be the Only Chance Your Business Gets in…

Small business owner planning legal tax strategies for 2026.

How To Pay Zero Taxes Legally As A Small Business Owner In 2026

How To Pay Zero Taxes Legally As A Small Business Owner In 2026 Introduction: Why Small Business Owners Need Smart Tax Planning in 2026 💼💰📊 How To…

“High yield business bank accounts 2026 for startups and entrepreneurs with APY growth and fintech tools”

Top 10 High Yield Business Bank Accounts In 2026 You Didn’t Know About

Top 10 High Yield Business Bank Accounts In 2026 You Didn’t Know About Introduction 🌍💼📈 Top 10 High Yield Business Bank Accounts In 2026 You Didn’t Know…

Small business owner celebrating successful grant funding approval in 2025 with documents and laptop on desk.

Top 5 Government Grants For Small Business Owners

Readability analysis: 💰Top 5 Government Grants for Small Business Owners in 2025 (Free Money You Don’t Want to Miss!) Top 5 Government Grants For Small Business Owners…

Small business owner celebrating loan approval on laptop after receiving $100K with no credit check.

How I Got A 100K Dollar Business Loan With No Credit Check

💰 How I Got a $100K Business Loan With No Credit Check (Full Process Explained) Starting or growing a business when your credit score isn’t perfect can…

Leave a Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *